The Mythological History of Sumer

The mythological history of Sumer, as told in the surviving myths, differs significantly from historical reality. Nevertheless, this mythological history can be reconstructed with astonishing precision and can even be connected to archaeological findings in some cases.

The reconstruction relies on three sources:

1. The chronological sequence of the myths, which can be determined through genealogical relationships of the gods, mentioned city foundations, and described developmental stages of society
2. Archaeologically verifiable events such as flood catastrophes, city foundations, or major construction projects mentioned in the myths
3. The biographies and interactions of the gods, which yield a complex but largely contradiction-free narrative

Particularly remarkable is that some of the catastrophes described in the myths can actually be verified archaeologically. For example, evidence exists for the great flood around 3500 BCE in Eridu and Ur as well as for the deluge around 2900 BCE in Shuruppak. City foundations, temple constructions, and the development of writing can also be grasped both mythologically and archaeologically.

The following presentation attempts to connect these various sources into a coherent narrative. It shows how the Sumerians understood and interpreted their own history, even though this interpretation often did not correspond to historical reality. Special attention is paid to the parallelism between mythological tradition and archaeological findings.

The Mythological Primordial Order

The mythological history of Sumer begins in a time when the world was still fundamentally differently structured. Heaven and earth were not separated but formed a unity, embodied by the connection of the sky god An with the earth goddess Ninhursag (also called Ki). The first great change to this primordial order is described in the myth “Enki and Ereshkigal”: Enlil, the son of An and Ninhursag, caused the separation of his parents and thus also the separation of heaven and earth. After this separation, the world was a dry wasteland that lacked fresh water. Therefore, An begot a second son with the sea goddess Nammu, Enki, who as god of fresh water was to irrigate this wasteland.

This poetic version of the creation story is described in a more formal version in the Atrahasis Epic:

“An, Enlil and Enki took a box with lots and drew them. Thus the gods made the separation. An got heaven for himself, Enlil got the earth. The Abzu, the bolt that holds back the water, was assigned to the far-sighted Enki.”

Both versions agree on the essential points: the division of the world into different areas of responsibility and the allocation of these areas to the great gods.

The Beginnings in Dilmun

The first steps toward cultivating the land are described in the myth “Enki and Ninhursag.” Remarkable is that the gods did not begin their work in Sumer, but in the land of Dilmun (present-day Bahrain). Dilmun was distinguished by its fresh water springs, and this characteristic was an essential reason for its importance in the region. In antiquity, the availability of fresh water was a crucial resource, especially in the arid areas of the Persian Gulf. In the myth, Enki describes his plan for Dilmun, which he subsequently put into action:

“For Dilmun, the land of my lady’s heart, I will create long waterways, rivers and canals through which water will flow to quench the thirst of all beings and bring abundance to all that lives. […] The underground flowing waters will bubble from the springs. May the water from it rise into your great basins. May your city drink abundantly water from them. May Dilmun drink abundantly water from them. May your basins with salt water become basins with fresh water. May your city become a trading place with a quay for the land. May Dilmun become a trading place with a quay for the land.”

The Geological Context

After the end of the last ice age, the Persian Gulf was largely dry, inhabitable land. With the melting of the glaciers, sea level rose and the Persian Gulf slowly filled with water between 10,000 BCE and 6,000 BCE. Around 6,000 BCE, the Persian Gulf had roughly reached its present form and Dilmun became an island.

The land of Dilmun was distinguished by its fresh water springs. This special situation in Dilmun seems to have fundamentally shaped the Sumerian concept of the Abzu. While in most regions of the world fresh water falls from the sky as rain, Dilmun had underground fresh water springs. This geological peculiarity is reflected in the Sumerian conception of the Abzu—an underground fresh water realm ruled by Enki and from which all fresh water originates. When the gods later developed irrigation systems in Sumer, this concept that arose in Dilmun was transferred to rivers and canals, even though their water was actually fed by rain. This early experience in Dilmun thus permanently shaped the Sumerian worldview and their conception of the origin of life-giving fresh water.

The Transition to Sumer

The myths show that the Sumerian gods did not begin creating the foundations of human civilization in Sumer, but in Dilmun. However, with the rise in sea level, Dilmun probably became too small over time for founding a state. Encouraged by their success, Enki and Ninhursag therefore decided to extend their work to later Sumer. This marks the beginning of Sumerian civilization in the mythological tradition. At the end of the myth “Enki and Ninhursag,” this decision is described with the words:

“I, Enki, lord of the fresh waters, say that from this strong and solid rock, which means life, love and fertility to me, the waters of life will flow forever into all worlds into which we venture.”

The mythological prehistory thus shows a remarkable correspondence with the actual climatic and cultural developments of this time. The world of gods in this early period is still manageable and consists of only a few main actors: An, Ninhursag, Enlil and Enki. Only in the following periods will the pantheon expand and the first cities emerge.

A Special Epoch: Gods Among Humans

The early Ubaid period occupies a unique position in the mythological history of Sumer. Even more than in later periods, the myths of this time report a direct physical presence of the gods on earth. Some of the Anunnaki gods live together with the Igigi, a group of lesser gods, in human form among humans and helped them build the first cities with their own hands.

The interactions in the myths during this time take place mainly between the gods themselves. Especially the siblings Enki and Ereshkigal as well as the half-brothers Enki and Enlil shape this epoch through their work. The myth “Enki and Ereshkigal” describes how Ereshkigal decides to descend into the underworld and rule over the underworld, while Enki begins building the first city.

Humans already existed and were taught by them. For example, the young Anunnaki goddess named Ningikuga “taught humans the art of binding and weaving reed,” with which the “huts for living and worship” were built. The gods noticed the limited intelligence of humans at that time. This becomes clear in the myth “Enki and Ereshkigal,” when Ereshkigal said to Enki:

“You, my lord, who through your craft convey to all humans the knowledge of what they can become, must know that this knowledge is rarely realized in the Middle World.”

The Establishment of the Three Worlds

A central event of the early Ubaid period was the establishment of the last of the three worlds: heaven, middle world, and underworld. The heaven of the gods and the middle world in which humans live already existed, while the underworld was established as the last of the three worlds.

The myth “Enki and Ereshkigal” describes how Ereshkigal, Enki’s twin sister, decides to descend into the underworld to take rule there. When Enki follows her to bring Ereshkigal back, he witnesses how the underworld is being built:

“Before him he could make out the outlines of a huge lapis lazuli building, a palace or temple under construction.”

However, Ereshkigal wanted to remain as ruler in the underworld. Before Enki left the underworld again, Ereshkigal gave him a significant farewell gift—the seed of the Huluppu tree. She prophesies:

“When this seed grows to full size, it will be the gate to this and many other worlds.”

Enki plants the tree on the banks of the Euphrates near the city of Eridu, which is being founded at this time. This tree shall henceforth serve as a connection between the three worlds: Its roots reach into the underworld, its trunk stands in the middle world, and its crown reaches toward heaven. This solemn event is also honored in the myth “Inanna and the Huluppu Tree”:

“In the first days, in the very first days,

in the first nights, in the very first nights,

in the first years, in the very first years,

in the first days when everything that was needed was created,

in the first days when everything that was needed was tended,

when bread was baked in the sanctuaries of the land

and bread was tasted in the houses of the land,

when heaven had moved away from earth,

when earth was separated from heaven,

when the name of man was established,

when An had taken heaven,

when Enlil had taken earth,

when the queen of the great below, Ereshkigal,

was given the underworld as her realm,

then a tree, a single tree,

was planted on the banks of the Euphrates.”

The fruits that this tree bears symbolically represent the knowledge that the gods pass on to humans. This establishment of the three worlds and their connection through the Huluppu tree creates the cosmological basic structure that remains formative for the entire further mythological history of Sumer.

The First Cities

At the beginning of the Ubaid period, Enki founds the city of Eridu on the banks of the Euphrates. Archaeological excavations have uncovered a sequence of early temple buildings in Eridu that document the continuous development of the religious center. The temple E-abzu, Enki’s sanctuary, was conceived as an interface between the above-ground world and the Abzu (the underground fresh water systems).

In the ruins of this early Eridu, administrative structures are already found. Seals and administrative objects point to a developed system of resource management, which corresponds to the mythological tradition according to which Enki passed on the basic arts and crafts to humans from here.

A few centuries later, Nippur was founded, which under Enlil’s leadership rose to an important administrative center. The Enlil temple (Ekur) was built on a natural elevation and further elevated through successive accumulations. This building method later became typical for Mesopotamian temple complexes.

The mythological tradition describes, especially in the myth “Enki and the World Order,” how Enlil organized the administration of the country’s income and expenditure from Nippur. This is confirmed by archaeological finds: Numerous early administrative documents were found in Nippur, pointing to an already complex system of resource management.

Over time, other settlements emerged. At strategically important points of the developing irrigation system, new centers were established. The gods distributed responsibility for these settlements among themselves and their temples served as local administrative centers.

The Development of Infrastructure

One of the most important developments of the early Ubaid period was the systematic construction of the irrigation system. As described in the Atrahasis Epic, Enlil commissioned the Igigi with the construction of the canals:

“The Igigi dug out the canals and kept them clear, the lifelines of the land. The Igigi solidified the riverbeds of the Tigris and Euphrates. They opened springs from the depths. They set up wells. They piled up elevations. These were years of toil.”

Certainly the Igigi, as far as it was possible for them at the time, also harnessed humans for heavy work, but this is not explicitly mentioned in the myths. The archaeological findings actually show a developing network of canals that formed the basis for later Sumerian agriculture.

The administration of this infrastructure required new forms of organization. A hierarchical structure developed in the temples, headed by priests. They not only administered religious rituals but also organized the distribution of resources. This early temple economy became the model for later Sumerian administration.

Humans were gradually integrated into the administration and maintenance of the system during this time. Under the guidance of the gods, they learned the necessary techniques and skills. However, the mythological tradition suggests that their limited intelligence was still a problem, as shown by Ereshkigal’s remark to Enki.

The early and middle Ubaid period was thus a period of fundamental developments in which the foundations of Sumerian civilization were laid. The mythological tradition and archaeological findings complement each other to form a coherent picture of a time of transition from simple settlements to the first urban centers. With Eridu and Nippur, two important religious centers existed around 4000 BCE that represented different aspects of emerging Sumerian civilization: Eridu as a center of crafts and wisdom under Enki, Nippur as a center of administration and organization under Enlil.

The late Ubaid period marks a phase of significant changes in the mythological history of Sumer. With the appearance of a new generation of gods—Nanna, Inanna, and Utu—a more dynamic period of development begins.

The myth “Nanna and Ningal” describes the birth of Nanna as son of Enlil and Ninlil. As moon god, Nanna is given a special role—he travels every night with the moon across the sky and thereby synchronizes the “heartbeat of life” with lunar cycles. From his later union with the dream interpreter Ningal come Inanna and Utu.

Archaeological excavations in Ur, Nanna’s city, show an already significant settlement for this time. The early layers of the temple district document continuous development of the religious center. Particularly remarkable are the finds of seals and administrative objects that point to an increasingly complex organization.

With the maturation of the young goddess Inanna, another new city emerges: the city of Uruk. The myth “Inanna and An” describes how the young goddess chooses the still small settlement of Uruk as her seat and receives from An the instruction to make the people in Uruk numerous. As described in the myth “Enki and the World Order,” she put this into action by urging people to copulate in the open squares of Uruk. Her strategy for expanding her city’s sphere of influence is also mentioned in this myth: She motivated people to multiply and then used the population surplus as warriors who enforced the city’s interests.

Archaeological excavations in Uruk confirm the dynamic development of this time: The city grows rapidly, and monumental buildings arise in the Eanna district. Architecture becomes more complex, and new building forms develop that would later become typical for Sumerian temple architecture.

The period ends dramatically: In the myth “Inanna and Enki,” it is described how Inanna cunningly takes the divine powers (Me) from the god Enki in Eridu and brings them to Uruk. This leads to a devastating flood that devastates Eridu and Ur. This flood is archaeologically documented by massive deposits—flood layers up to 2.5 meters thick were found in both cities, which can be dated to about 3500 BCE. After this catastrophe, Eridu increasingly loses importance while Uruk experiences a remarkable upswing.

The beginning of the Uruk period stands under the sign of reconstruction after the great flood that had devastated Eridu and Ur. The myth “Enki and the World Order” describes how Enki rebuilds the land devastated by the flood and redistributes tasks among the gods. He organizes trade with Dilmun, procures new livestock from nomads, and assigns various gods their specific tasks.

At the same time, the Uruk period begins a new phase of Sumerian history. Archaeological findings show a dramatic change: Uruk develops into humanity’s first true metropolis. The city grows considerably, and the Eanna district is expanded through monumental new buildings.

The myth “The Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi” describes a central event of this time: Inanna chooses the shepherd god Dumuzi as her consort. She establishes the ritual of “Sacred Marriage,” which would later serve to legitimize rulership. Archaeological excavations have uncovered special rooms in the Eanna district that were presumably used for this ceremony.

One of the most important developments of this time is the invention of writing. The oldest written tablets found in Uruk initially document mainly administrative processes: distribution of goods, trade transactions, and agricultural production. This corresponds to the mythological tradition that the Me that Inanna had stolen from the god Enki also included the art of writing.

According to the Atrahasis Epic, the region is struck around 3300 BCE or earlier, along with the expansion of trade relations, by a devastating epidemic called the “Suruppu disease.” This epidemic has not yet been archaeologically verifiable. The myth “Inanna’s Descent to the Underworld” can be dated approximately to this time. This possibly provides a mythological explanation for why the goddess wanted to make the divine powers of the underworld usable for her city Uruk.

Archaeological findings show clear population growth in the cities. Uruk was a center of innovation. The development of cuneiform writing made great progress in the time after 3100 BCE—texts become more complex and now also include literary works. During this time, Uruk also reaches its maximum extent. The city reaches an area of about 250-400 hectares (2.5-4 km²) and Uruk’s population is estimated at about 40,000 to 80,000 people in its heyday.

The period ends with a catastrophe: the great flood around 2900 BCE, which is treated in the next chapter. This flood is archaeologically particularly well documented in Shuruppak, where massive flood deposits were found. It marks the end of the Uruk period and the transition to the early dynastic period.

The flood of 2900 BCE represents a dramatic turning point in the mythological history of Sumer. The Atrahasis Epic describes how the gods, especially Enlil, wanted to use the flood as a means of reducing the population. Only through Enki’s intervention, who warns King Atrahasis (also Ziusudra or Utnapishtim) and gives him instructions for building a rescue boat, does part of the Sumerian population survive.

Archaeological findings impressively confirm the extent of this catastrophe. In Shuruppak (modern Fara), massive flood deposits were found that are dated to this time. Similar deposits were also verified at other locations in southern Mesopotamia, suggesting that it was a regional event that affected large parts of southern Mesopotamia.

The flood marks not only a physical caesura but also a turning point in the relationship between gods and humans. After the flood, a new system for regulating population growth is introduced in the Atrahasis Epic. Births are no longer directly supervised by the goddess Ninhursag, and the Pasittu demon is allowed to snatch children from their mother’s womb—a mythological explanation for high infant mortality.

Archaeologically, a clear cultural change can be observed after the flood. Many cities show traces of destruction and subsequent reconstruction. Material culture changes, pointing to a break in cultural continuity. Particularly interesting is that new political structures emerge after this catastrophe—the transition to the early dynastic period begins.

After the flood, the early dynastic period begins a new epoch in the mythological history of Sumer. The Etana myth describes how Etana as king of Kish rebuilds the city. Archaeological excavations in Kish have actually uncovered a significant settlement layer from this time, pointing to rapid reconstruction after the flood. Etana is called “king of wild animals” in the myth—presumably a metaphor for the uncivilized humans who had survived the flood in the mountains and who are called “white sheep” by Ninhursag in the Atrahasis Epic.

The eagle Anzu is commissioned by Enlil to redistribute human fates to enable the reconstruction of Sumerian civilization. According to the myth “Lugalbanda and the Anzu Bird,” Enlil had commissioned the eagle Anzu to arrange human fates so that they would remain on the “straight and narrow path” on which they were useful to his projects.

A fundamental change occurs in the relationship between gods and humans. Direct rule by the gods is replaced around 2750 BCE by a system of human kings who, however, still require divine legitimation through Enlil and the respective city god. This is also reflected in architectural development: Temples remain important religious centers, but independent palace complexes now also emerge as seats of secular power.

The myth “Lugalbanda and the Anzu Bird” provides insight into the political conditions of this time. It describes a campaign by King Enmerkar of Uruk against the rich city of Aratta. Even though the city of Aratta has not yet been identified, archaeological finds confirm the increasing military competition between city-states: Fortifications are strengthened, and more weapons are found in graves.

The mythological tradition thus also suggests that the gods developed more subtle methods of influence during this time after direct rule had been abandoned.

The time around 2600 BCE is dominated in mythological history by the figure of Gilgamesh. As king of Uruk, he is the protagonist of several significant mythological episodes that can be partially located archaeologically.

One of his most remarkable achievements is the expansion of Uruk’s city wall. The Epic of Gilgamesh describes this wall in detail, and indeed archaeological excavations have documented a massive reinforcement of Uruk’s fortifications during this time. The monumental brick wall was about 9 km long, enclosed an area of about 6 km², and reached a height of 12-15 meters. They were equipped with regular towers and represented an impressive example of early military architecture.

An important mythological event of this time is the felling of the Huluppu tree by Gilgamesh, as described in the myth “Inanna and the Huluppu Tree.” This tree, once planted by Enki and serving as a connection between underworld, middle world, and heaven, is felled and its wood used for Inanna’s wedding bed. This symbolically marks the end of the close connection between divine and human spheres and the beginning of influencing human kings through the ritual of sacred marriage with the goddess Inanna.

The Epic of Gilgamesh also describes a failed attempt by Inanna to establish a realm of the gods in the cedar forest. The giant Humbaba, created by Enlil, was supposed to guard this forest but is killed by Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu. Archaeological findings show an increase in trade relations with the wood-rich regions in the north during this time, which possibly forms the historical background of this episode.

Of particular significance is Gilgamesh’s search for immortality, which leads him to Utnapishtim (Atrahasis), the survivor of the flood. This episode shows the increasing distance between humans and gods—even a king like Gilgamesh is denied the immortality of the gods.

The time of Gilgamesh thus marks another important transition in mythological history: The gods increasingly withdraw while human rulers like Gilgamesh gain independence. Archaeological findings confirm this development through the increase of monumental secular buildings and the further development of administrative structures.

The last phase of Sumer’s mythological history is marked by the Anzu myth. This episode, dated to 1900 BCE, describes a final crisis of divine order: The eagle Anzu, who had been commissioned by Enlil to determine human fates, steals the tablet of destinies, which gives him the power to also determine the fates of the Igigi. Through this theft, he threatens the entire divine order. The gods commission Ninurta to retrieve the tablet of destinies. In a dramatic battle, Ninurta kills the eagle Anzu and thus shows that he is capable of determining his own fate. He thus restores divine order, but Anzu, who had previously determined human fates, no longer exists.

Remarkable is that this last great Sumerian myth deals with the end of an old order because of Anzu’s death. After the Anzu myth, hardly any new myths of this type emerge for several centuries. This corresponds with profound cultural changes: The Sumerian language is increasingly displaced by Akkadian and new political powers like Babylon come to the foreground. The old Sumerian cult centers lose political significance, but their religious traditions are integrated into the new Babylonian culture.

This cultural transformation can be particularly well shown by the example of the sun god Utu, who lives on in the Babylonian tradition as Shamash. As god of justice, Utu had already played a central role in the development of the legal system in Sumerian times. In the famous law stele of the Code of Hammurabi (around 1750 BCE), he appears as Shamash, who gives the laws to the Babylonian king. The representation clearly draws on Sumerian traditions—the sun god is presented as god of justice and truth as in Sumerian texts. At the same time, these traditions are transferred into a new cultural context: The Babylonian king receives the laws from the god, while the early Sumerian kings often themselves held the status of gods.

Archaeological findings show that many Sumerian cult traditions were remarkably long-lived despite these transformations. The moon cult in Ur, for example, existed for over 3000 years, from early dynastic Sumerian times to late antiquity. The gradual fading of Sumer’s mythological history thus did not mean the end of its cultural influence. Rather, central elements of their religious and political traditions were preserved and developed over millennia.

The mythological history of Sumer extends over a period of almost 4000 years, from prehistory (before 5500 BCE) to the end of mythical time around 1900 BCE. This history can be divided into several clearly distinguishable epochs:

The prehistory is shaped by the separation of worlds and the creation of paradisiacal conditions in Dilmun. Remarkable is the correspondence between mythological tradition and geological findings regarding the development of the Persian Gulf.

The Ubaid period (5500-3500 BCE) is characterized by the physical presence of the gods on earth. The first cities emerge—Eridu and Nippur—and with the Huluppu tree, a connection between the three worlds is established. The late Ubaid period brings forth a new generation of gods with Nanna, Inanna, and Utu. This period is ended by a flood catastrophe in Eridu and Ur.

The Uruk period (3500-2900 BCE) stands under the sign of Uruk’s rise to the first metropolis. The invention of writing and the establishment of the “Sacred Marriage” ritual fall into this period, which is ended by the great flood.

The early dynastic period and the time of Gilgamesh (2900-2600 BCE) mark the transition from direct divine rule to kingship. The gods increasingly withdraw while human rulers gain independence.

The end of mythical time is marked by the Anzu myth, but the cultural influence of Sumerian traditions remains and is transferred into new contexts.

Remarkable is the frequent correspondence between mythological tradition and archaeological findings, especially regarding:

• The development of early cities
• The great flood catastrophes (3500 and 2900 BCE)
• The development of writing and administration
• The emergence of monumental architecture

These parallels suggest that the mythological traditions, despite all poetic elaboration, essentially describe the actual development of Sumer, which helps us better understand the development of the first advanced civilization.